61. Recently federal policy makers have adopted an approach intended to accelerate development of the minority business sector by moving away from directly aiding small minority enterprises and toward supporting larger, growth-oriented minority firms through intermediary companies.

　　62. SCIENCE FICTION can provide students interested in the future with a basic introduction to the concept of thinking about possible futures in a serious way, a sense of the emotional forces in their own culture that are affecting the shape the future may take, and a multitude of extrapolations regarding the results of present trends.

　　63. There is one particular type of story that can be especially valuable as a stimulus to discussion of these issues both in courses on the future and in social science courses in general-the story which presents well-worked-out, detailed societies that differ significantly from the society of the reader.

　　64. In performing this “what if…” function, SCIENCE FICTION can act as a social laboratory as authors ruminate upon the forms social relationships could take if key variables in their own societies were different, and upon what new belief systems or mythologies could arise in the future to provide the basic rationalizations for human activities.

　　65. If it is true that more people find it difficult to conceive of the ways in which their society, or human nature itself, could undergo fundamental changes, then SCIENCE FICTION of this type may provoke one’s imagination to consider the diversity of paths potentially open to society.

　　66. That is, SCIENCE FICTION has always had a certain cybernetic effect on society, as its visions emotionally engage the future-consciousness of the mass public regarding especially desirable and undesirable possibilities.

　　67. It is often pointed out that, however ingenious they may be about future technologies, many SCIENCE FICTION writers exhibit an implicit conservative bias in their stories, insofar as social projections are either ignored or based on variations of the present status quo or of historical social systems reshuffled whole-cloth into the future.

　　68. Most SCIENCE FICTION authors have found it as hard as most other mortals to extrapolate social mores different from those operating within their own milieu, so that, it has been charged, far from preparing the reader for future shock, SCIENCE FICTION is a literature that comfortably and smugly reassures him that the future will not be radically different from the present.

　　69. The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumptions on which it is based are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions.

　　70. John Dewey has said in all seriousness that the part played by custom in shaping the behavior of the individual as over against any way in which he can affect traditional custom, is as the proportion of the total vocabulary of his mother tongue over against those words of his own baby talk that are taken up into the language of his family.

　　71. But assuming that the contrast I have developed is valid, and that the fostering of skills and creativity are both worthwhile goals, the important question becomes this: can we gather a way, from the Chinese and American extremes, a superior way, perhaps striking a better balance between creativity and basic skills?

　　72. Even the folk knowledge in social systems on which ordinary life is based in earning, spending, organizing, marrying, taking part in political activities, fighting, and so on, is not very dissimilar from the more sophisticated images of the social system derived from the social sciences, even though it is built upon the very imperfect samples of personal experience.

　　73. The question of whether the decrease in plant fecundity caused by the spraying of pesticides actually causes a decline in the overall population of flowering plant species still remains unanswered.

　　74. This fact alone makes imperative in any education system the study of the kinds of works discussed in this section.

　　75. The explosion of a bomb in the streets of a city whose name no one had ever heard before may set in motion forces which end up by ruining one’s carefully planned education in law school, half a world away.

　　76. These questions are political in the sense that the debate over them will inevitably be less an exploration of abstract matters in a spirit of disinterested(公正的，没有私利的) inquiry than an academic power struggle in which the careers and professional fortunes of many women scholars –only now entering the academic profession in substantial numbers—are at stake, and with them the chances for a distinctive contribution to humanistic understanding, a contribution that might serve as an important influence against increasing sexism in our society of fundamental, unparalleled change.

　　77. But the plight of the world compels his unwilling attention, and when he sees that human stupidity and greed are about to plunge Europe into chaos and destroy the most glorious civilization the world has ever known, he feels that it is high time for men of good sense and good will to intervene and to take politics out of the hands of the plutocrats of the Right and the woolly-minded idealists of the Left.

　　78. Never when controversy avoided the subjects which are large and important enough to arouse enthusiasm was the mind of a people stirred up from its foundations and the impulse given which raised even persons of the most ordinary intellect to something of the dignity of thinking beings.

　　79. Where there is an unspoken convention that principles are not to be disputed or where the discussion of the greatest questions which can occupy humanity is considered to be closed, we cannot hope to find that generally high scale of mental activity which has made some periods of history so remarkable.

　　80. Interest in historical methods has risen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves.

　　81. While historians once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy, the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the past.

　　82. Social science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world.

　　83. During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of historical evidence in the historical study.

　　84. There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry.

　　85. The fallacy applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activities with specific techniques.

　　86. I shall define an intellectual as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底) way about moral problems.

　　87. Whether to use tests，other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefore, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.

　　88. In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted cannot be well defined. Tests do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.

　　89. While in America the trend started as a reaction to the economic decline----after the mass redundancies caused by downsizing in the late '80s---and is still linked to the politics of thrift, in Britain, at least among the middle-class down-shifters of my acquaintance, we have different reasons for seeking to simplify our lives.

　　90. An invisible border divides those arguing for computers in the classroom on the behalf of students’ career prospects and those arguing for computers in the classroom for broader reasons of radical educational reform.

　　91. Very few writers on the subject have explored this distinction – indeed, contradiction – which goes to the heart of what is wrong with the campaign to put computers in the classroom.

　　92. An education that aims at getting a student a certain kind of job is a technical education, justified for reasons radically different from why education is universally required by law.

　　93. It is not simply to raise everyone’s job prospects that all children are legally required to attend school into their teens.

　　94. Banking on the confusion between educational and vocational reasons for bringing computers into schools, computer-education advocates often emphasize the job prospects of graduates over their educational achievement.

　　95. But, for a small group of students, professional training might be the way to go since well developed skills, all other factors being equal, can be the difference between having a job and not. Of course, the basics of using any computer these days are very simple. It does not take a lifelong acquaintance to pick up various software programs.

　　96. When a new movement in art attains a certain fashion, it is advisable to find out what its advocates are aiming at, for, however farfetched and unreasonable their principles may seem today, it is possible that in years to come they may be regarded as normal.

　　97. It is a curious paradox that we think of the physical sciences as “hard”, the social sciences as “soft”, and the biological sciences as somewhere in between.

　　98. New forms of thoughts as well as new subjects for thought must arise in the future as they have in the past, giving rise to new standards of elegance.

　　99. Never mind something as complex as conversation: the most powerful computers struggle to reliably recognize the shape of an object, the most elementary of tasks for a ten-month-old kid.

　　100. There are those who assert that the switch to an information-based economy is in the same camp as other great historical milestones, particularly the Industrial Revolution.

　　101. I shall define an intellectual as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底) way about moral problems.

　　102. He explores such problem consciously, articulately, and frankly, first by asking factual questions, then by asking moral questions, finally by suggesting action which seems appropriate in the light of the factual and moral information which he has obtained.

　　103. His function is analogous to that of a judge, who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.

　　104. This definition excludes many individuals usually referred to as intellectuals----the average scientist for one. I have excluded him because, while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems, he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.

　　105. Like other human beings, he encounters moral issues even in everyday performance of his routine duties--- he is not supposed to cook his experiments, manufacture evidence, or doctor his reports.

　　106. But his primary task is not to think about the moral code, which governs his activity, any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business. During most of his walking life he will take his code for granted, as the businessman takes his ethics.

　　107. Never when prolonged arguments avoided the subjects which are huge and important enough to rouse enthusiasm was the mind of a people stirred up from its foundations and the impulse given which raised even persons of the most ordinary intellect to something of thinking beings.

　　108. Creating a “European identity” that respects the different cultures and traditions which go to make up the connecting fabric of the Old continent is no easy task and demands a strategic choice - that of producing programs in Europe for Europe.

　　109. Declaring that he was opposed to using this unusual animal husbandry technique to clone humans, he ordered that federal funds not be used for such an experiment-although no one had proposed to do so--and asked an independent panel of experts chaired by Princeton President Harold Shapiro to report back to the White House in 90 days with recommendations for a national policy on human cloning.

　　110. That group--the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC)-has been working feverishly to put its wisdom on paper, and at a meeting on 17 May, members agreed on a near-final draft of their recommendations.

　　111. NBAC will ask that Clinton’s 90-day ban on federal funds for human cloning be extended indefinitely, and possibly that it be made law. But NBAC members are planning to word the recommendation narrowly to avoid new restrictions on research that involves the cloning of human DNA or cells-routine in molecular biology.

　　112. In a draft preface to the recommendations, discussed at the 17 May meeting, Shapiro suggested that the panel had found a broad consensus that it would be morally unacceptable to attempt to create a human child by adult nuclear cloning.

　　113. NBAC plans to call for a continued ban on federal government funding for any attempt to clone body cell nuclei to create a child. Because current federal law already forbids the use of federal funds to create embryos (the earliest stage of human offspring before birth) for research or to knowingly endanger an embryo’ s life, NBAC will remain silent on embryo research.

　　114. For example, ALH84001 has been on earth for 13,000 years, suggesting to some scientists that its PAH’s might have resulted form terrestrial contamination.

　　115. Two years later, the McKay team announced that ALH84001, which scientists generally agree originated on Mars, contained compelling evidence that life once existed on Mars.

　　116. Many commentators believe that this change had already occurred in 1871 when—following a dispute between the House and the Senate over which chamber should enjoy primacy in Indian affairs—Congress abolished the making of treaties with Native American tribes.

　　117. But in reality the federal government continued to negotiate formal tribal agreements past the turn of the century, treating these documents not as treaties with sovereign nations requiring ratification by the Senate but simply as legislation to be passed by both houses of Congress.

　　118. This historian assumes that Alessandra had goals and interests different from those of her sons, yet much of the historian’s own research reveals that Alessandra acted primarily as a champion of her sons’ interests, taking their goals as her own.

　　119. Most pre-1990 literature on businesses’ use of information technology (IT)—defined as any form of computer-based information system—focused on spectacular IT successes and reflected a general optimism concerning IT’s potential as a resource for creating competitive advantage.

　　120. The findings support the notion, founded in resource-based theory, that competitive advantages do not arise from easily replicated resources, no matter how impressive or economically valuable they may be, but from complex, intangible resources.